Conflict Resolution What is conflict? The value of conflict Teaching constructive conflict resolution References What Is Conflict? Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities occur (Deutsch, 1973). An activity that is incompatible with another is one that prevents, blocks, or interferes with the occurrence or effectiveness of the second activity. A conflict can be as small as a disagreement or as large as a war. It can originate in one person, between two or more people, or between two or more groups. Conflicts are abundant in schools. Conflicts in schools can be classified as (Johnson & Johnson, 1995a): Controversy: A controversy occurs when one person's ideas, information, conclusions, theories, and opinions are incompatible with those of another and the two seek to reach an agreement. When managed constructively, academic controversy facilitates learning in the classroom and decision controversy facilitates high-quality decision making in the school. Conceptual Conflict: A person experiences conceptual conflict when incompatible ideas exist simultaneously in his or her mind or when information being received does not seem to fit with what one already knows. An individual experiences conceptual conflict when engaged in controversy as ideas and arguments are presented that are incongruent with one's original position. Conflict Of Interests: Interpersonal conflict occurs when the actions of one person attempting to maximize his or her goals prevent, block, or interfere with another person attempting to maximize personal goals. Common examples among students include control over resources ("I want to use the computer now!"), preferences over activities ("I want to eat outside on the picnic bench, not in the cafeteria!"), and a range of relationships issues that often result in name calling, insults, threats, or physical aggression ("You are a real jerk!"). Developmental Conflict: Developmental conflict exists when incompatible activities between adult and child based on the opposing forces of stability and change within the child cycles in and out of peak intensity as the child develops cognitively and socially.   The Value Of Conflict Conflicts have considerable value when they are managed constructively. The issue is not whether conflicts occur, but rather how they are managed. Desirable outcomes of constructively managed conflict include (Deutsch, 1973; Johnson, 1970; Johnson & F. Johnson, 1994; Johnson & Johnson, 1995a): greater quantity and quality of achievement, complex reasoning, and creative problem solving; higher quality decision making; healthier cognitive, social, and psychological development by being better able to deal with stress and cope with unforeseen adversities; increased motivation and energy to take action; higher quality relationships with friends, co-workers, and family members; a greater sense of caring, commitment, joint identity, and cohesiveness with an emphasis on increased liking, respect, and trust; heightened awareness that a problem exists that needs to be solved; and increased incentive to change.   Teaching Constructive Conflict Resolution Teaching students to manage conflict constructively helps create schools that are conflict positive organizations--schools that realize the benefits from conflict by purposefully structuring constructive conflict. To do so, educators must (a) create a cooperative context, (b) use academic controversy in the classroom, and (c) teach students to be peacemakers. Creating A Cooperative Context (see Cooperation In The Classroom, Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993): The constructive resolution of conflict in an ongoing relationship (such as in family, school, and work situations) requires disputants to recognize that their long-term relationship is more important than the result of any short-term conflict. In order for long-term mutual interest to be recognized and valued, individuals have to perceive their interdependence and be invested in each other's well-being. Use of cooperative learning procedures in the classroom for most of the school day creates the cooperative context necessary for constructive conflict resolution and helps students learn the social interaction skills that contribute to mutually resolving conflicts Using Academic Controversy In The Classroom (see Creative Controversy: Intellectual Challenge In The Classroom, Johnson & Johnson, 1995c): In order to maximize student achievement and complex reasoning, students need to engage in intellectual conflicts. The procedure for doing so is for members of a cooperative group to (a) research and prepare different positions, (b) make a persuasive presentation of their researched position, (c) refute the opposing position while rebutting attacks on their own position, (d) view the issue from a variety of perspectives (i.e., reverse perspectives), and (e) synthesize/integrate the opposing positions into one mutually agreed upon position. Frequently structuring academic controversies in the classroom allows students to practice their conflict skills daily. Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers (see Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers, Johnson & Johnson, 1995a, and Our Mediation Notebook, Johnson & Johnson, 1995b): All students must be taught how to negotiate and mediate and gain enough experience so that they develop considerable expertise in resolving interpersonal conflicts constructively. Doing so creates a school-wide discipline program based on giving students the tools to regulate their own behavior. Teach Students To Negotiate: In order to resolve conflicts of interest and developmental conflicts constructively, students need to be taught the procedure for problem-solving negotiations. Students must be able to communicate honestly (a) what they want and (b) how they feel, (c) explain interests as well as positions, (d) take the opposing perspective, (e) create a number of optional agreements that maximize joint outcomes, and (f) reach agreement on one of the options. Teach Students To Mediate: When students cannot successfully negotiate a constructive resolution to their conflicts, mediators should be available. Mediating involves (a) ending hostilities, (b) ensuring commitment to the mediation process, (c) facilitating negotiations, and (d) formalizing the agreement. All students need mediation experience. To implement the peer mediation program, each day pairs of students are chosen to serve as class or school mediators. The responsibility is rotated so that all students serve as mediator an equal amount of time. Arbitrate Student Conflicts: When mediation fails, the teacher or administrator arbitrates the conflict. Arbitration involves listening carefully to both sides in a conflict and deciding who is right and who is wrong. Arbitration is a last resort because it can leave at least one student resentful and angry toward the arbitrator and it does not teach students how to manage their own conflicts constructively.   References Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict: Constructive and destructive processes. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Johnson, D. W. (1970). Social psychology of education. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. (1994). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995a). Teaching students to be peacemakers (3rd ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995b). Our mediation notebook (2nd ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995c). Creative controversy: Intellectual challenge in the classroom (3rd ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1993). Cooperation in the classroom (6th ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

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